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[|Final Review] Write down and learn the items in the presentation. Grading will be curved in that the seventh highest score will start the As. 10% less will start the Bs. 10% less will start the Cs, etc.

1/04/2010 Write the white text in the presentation as notes [|Genetic Terms and Squares]
 * 1) 78 Genetic Terms and Squares Notes

For thousands of years farmers and herders have been selectively breeding their plants and animals to produce more useful hybrids. It was somewhat of a hit or miss process since the actual mechanisms governing inheritance were unknown. A number of incorrect hypotheses were suggested to explain hereditary including one by Darwin. In the 1850s, Gregor Mendel finally discovered how the genetic mechanisms of selective breeding work. Mendel used carefully controlled experiments and math called statistics to gain this knowledge. The significance Mendel's work was not recognized by other scientist for 50 years. Mendel used plants in his genetic experiments, but the mechanisms of heredity are the same for animals. Through selective crossbreeding of common pea plants over many generations, Mendel discovered that certain traits show up in the offspring without any blending of contrasting characteristics. For instance, pea flowers are either purple or white-- intermediate colors do not appear in the offspring of pea plants. Pea plants have seven easily recognize traits that occur only in one of two forms. These traits are: lower position, plant height, pod appearance, pod color, seed texture, seed color, flower color. Mendel's choice of traits did not blend was another reason for his success. Pea plants worked well for Mendel's experiments because they have both male and female reproductive parts. As a result, they can either self-pollinate or cross-pollinate with another plant. Pollination occurs when pollen grains are transferred from the male parts to the female parts of flowers. To make a pea plant solely self-pollinate, the flower only has to be covered to stop cross-pollination. To make a pea plant only cross-pollinate, the male parts of its flowers must be removed. Pollen is then transferred by hand from another flower to this flower with only female parts. This pollinated flower then must also be covered. Mendel started his experiments with true-breeding plants for each different trait for each characteristic. Plants with contrasting traits of a single characteristic were then crossed. For example, plants with purple flowers were crossed with white flowered plants. These true-breeding plants were called the P generation. The offspring of the the P generation were called the F1 generation. Next, the F1 generation was allowed to self pollinate to produce yet another generation. The offspring of the F1 generation was called the F2 generation. In this way, the offspring of two generations of crosses were named and studied. When Mendel did the crosses describe above, he always got the same results. When he crossed the P generation with contrasting traits, all the offspring called the F1 generation only showed one of the two traits. For example, when true-breeding purple and white flowers were crossed, all the F1 generation had purple flowers. The F1 generation was then allowed to self-pollinate to produce the F2 generation. Despite having only purple flowers, the F1 generation always produced a F2 generation with both purple and white flowers. In fact, three-fourths of the flowers of the F2 generation were always purple and one-fourth were always white. From these results Mendel concluded that a pair of factors must control each of the traits he studied. Today, we know that an offspring has two genes for each trait and one gene comes from each of their parents. Mendel observed that one of the two contrasting traits would totally disappeared in the F1 generation, but reappeared in the F2 generation. From this, Mendel said that one form of a trait was dominant over the other trait. He called the form of the trait that did not disappear dominant and the trait that reappeared recessive. Mendel reasoned that all of the F1 generation got a dominant factor for the trait from one parent and a recessive factor from the other. He also reasoned that one quarter of the F2 generation would get two dominant factors from their parent plants. Plus, half of the F2 generation would get one dominant and one recessive from their parents. Finally, one quarter of the F2 generation would get two recessive factors from their parents. This explained why three quarters of the F2 generation would show one form of a characteristic and one quarter would show the other form. Mendel determined that characteristic pass from parents to offspring as pairs of factors. The offspring gets one of these factors from each parent. Today we call these factors genes which are sections of DNA code on chromosomes. The genes for a characteristic can have different forms. For example, purple vs. white flower color. The different forms of a gene for a characteristic are called alleles. So, one plant may have two alleles for purple flowers while another may two alleles for white flowers. Still others plants may have one allele for purple flowers and the other allele for white flowers. The word allele is used to indicate the form of a gene for a characteristic. Mendel reasoned that a pair of factors must control each characteristic and these pairs are called alleles. 1. .......... discovered how the genetic mechanisms of selective breeding work. 2. Mendel used .......... experiments and .......... to determine how the mechanisms of heredity work. 3. Certain traits show up in the offspring without any ........ of contrasting characteristics. 4. Intermediate flower colors .......... appear in the offspring of pea plants. 5. If a flower pollinates itself, this is called ..... . 6. .......... is when a flower pollinates another flower. 7. Cross-pollination can be stopped by .......... . 8. Self-pollination can be stopped by ......... . 9. The P generation consisted of plants with .......... traits/characteristics like tall or short. 10. The .......... was produced by crossing true-breeding, parent, plants with contrasting traits/characteristics. 11. The F2 generation produced by allowing the ......... to only self-pollinate. 12. The ......... only showed one of the two forms of a trait/characteristic. 13. The ........ showed both forms of a trait in a ratio of three to one. (3/4 with one form and 1/4 with the other) 14. Mendel concluded that traits are controlled by ........ and one factor comes from each parent. 15. All of the F1 generation showed the same trait because a ......... factor was received from one parent. 16. A trait reappeared in a quarter of the F2 generation because they received two ......... factors from their parents. 17. Today we call Mendel's factors .......... . 18. The two forms of a gene are called .......... which produce different forms of a trait like tall or short.
 * 1) 77 Mendel and Genetics

Our modern understanding of inheritance starts in the 19th century with the Augustine monk Gregor Mendel. In his spare time he studied inheritance in many plant species. For centuries prior to Mendel’s birth, farmers knew that if they bred from the cows that gave the most milk, or from the wheat with the largest grains, they were likely to get these useful characteristics again. The results of breeding, however, did not always turn out just as expected. Sometimes the offspring had useful characteristics; at other times they did not. The useful characteristics that did not appear in the ‘children’, sometimes reappeared in ‘grandchildren’.
 * 1) 76 PATTERNS OF INHERITANCE (Copy the sentences at the end and fill in the blanks.)

In 1865, Mendel provided the first scientific explanation for the puzzle of inheritance through a series of experiments carried out by breeding pea plants with parents of different types or varieties. Other people had carried out similar work before, but had been unable to identify any clear patterns from their observations. This was mainly because they had looked at the overall appearance of the plants, which seemed to show that the offspring were a ‘blend’ of features from both parents. In the same way clear patterns of inheritance are hard to see in humans; most people seem a mix of their parents. However, some clear patterns can be traced, especially with inherited diseases.

Mendel’s breakthrough was to focus his attention on a few carefully chosen characteristics such as the shape of the seeds and the height of the plant. By crossing peas with different characteristics, Mendel demonstrated the effects of the gene for tallness were concealing the gene for shortness. He therefore described tallness as ‘dominant’ over shortness. In following experiments, he was able to show that other characteristics were ‘recessive’ and required the same information from both parents to display that particular characteristic.

First generation - When Mendel crossed tall and short plants, all the first generation plants were tall. Each of these parents contained a pair of genes that controlled the plant size (tall or short). Every plant in the first generation had one height gene for tallness and another for shortness. The tall gene came from one parent and the short gene came from the other. The dominant gene for tallness was concealing the copy for shortness. In the first generation all the plants were tall because tallness is dominant over shortness in pea plants.

Second generation - When Mendel crossed the first generation with itself by self-pollination a second generation was produced. In the second generation, three-quarters of the plants were tall and one quarter were short. In the second generation, the gene for 'shortness' was revealed. One of every four plants of the second generation was short. Mendel figured out that the disappearing and reappearing of a trait happens because each plants has two genes for it, which he called factors. A trait reappears when an organism gets two recessive genes for the trait. The trait that did not disappear is dominant and the reappearing trait is recessive. The two forms of a gene is called alleles. In this case there are tall alleles and short alleles. From these two alleles, the second generation had four possible combinations of genes: 1. two tall genes, one from each parent plant; 2. a tall and a short gene, one from each parent plant; 3. a short and a tall gene, one from each parent plant; 4. two short genes, one from each parent plant. The allele for tallness is dominant, so in three out of four cases, tall plants were produced. One out of four plants was short because it had two recessive alleles for being short. Recessive traits only appear when there are two copies of the recessive form of the gene.

Inheritance principles: a. An individual’s inherited characteristics are controlled by units of information that we now call genes. b. Humans have pairs of genes for each trait. c. Each parent passes on one copy of each gene to its offspring. d. There is an equal chance of either gene being passed on. e. Some characteristics may be dominant over others and recessive ones may not be evident in all generations.

1. ........... started our modern understanding of inheritance. 2. Mendel focused on carefully chosen .......... for his experiments rather than overall appearance. 3. Mendel demonstrated that some ........... characteristics could conceal genes of a contrasting trait. 4. Recessive characteristics are only present when the same .......... is received from both parents. 5. First generation plants had one height gene for ......... and another for .......... . 6. The first generation plants were all tall because tallness is .......... over shortness in pea plants. 7. The second generation was produced by having the first generation only .......... . 8. A trait .......... when an organism gets two recessive genes for the trait. 9. Units of information that control traits are called ....... . 10. Each parent passes on .......... copy of each gene to its offspring. 11. There is an ......... chance for either of the parents alleles to be pass to their offspring because homologous chromosomes separate randomly in meiosis I.


 * 1) 75 Vocabulary

Copy the material below. Simplify the pictures if you want. Visualizing Mendel's Experiments: Gregor Mendel discovered that the experiments he carried out on garden plants provided an understanding of heredity. For eight years he crossed plants that had different characteristics and recorded how those characteristics are passed from generation to generation. One such characteristic, was the height of a plants. The result of Mendel's experiments on plant height are shown in the picture. A. One of the so-called “parent plants” in Mendel's experiment was tall, a dominant trait. The other plant had pods that were yellow, a recessive trait.
 * 1) 74 Visualizing Mendel's Experiments

B. Mendel discovered that the two “parents” produced a generation of plants that were all tall. The recessive-short-height did not appear in any of the plants.

C. Next, Mendel collected seeds from the first-generation plants and raised a second generation. He discovered that these second-generation plants produced plants that were either tall or short in a ratio of about three tall plants for every short plant. The recessive trait had reappeared. This 3:1 ratio proved remarkably consistent in in hundreds of similar crosses, allowing Mendel to accurately predict the ratio of pod color in second-generation plants.

Contrasting Characteristics of Mendel's Experiments Each characteristic had two forms.

Mitosis & Meiosis Facts 1. .......... results in four cells. 2. .......... results in two cells. 3. .......... produces haploid cells 4. ......... produces diploid cells. 5. ......... produces more somatic cells. 6. .......... produces more gametes. 7. Body cells are also called .......... . 8. Sex cells are also called .......... . 9. Cells with pairs of chromosomes are called ......... . 10. Cells in which the chromosomes are unpaired are called .......... . 11. Cells with pairs of homologous chromosomes are called .......... . 12. Cells with half of each pair of homologous chromosomes are called .......... . 13. .......... chromosome pairs are separate pieces of DNA that contain the same genes. 14. Chromosome doublets consist of two identical ......... connected at a centromere. 15. .......... is the phase in which chromatids separate when somatic cells are produced. 16. ......... is the phase in which paired up homologous chromosome separate. 17. ........ is the phase in which chromatids separate in making haploid sex cells. 18. The process of dividing everything in a cell except the nucleus is.......... . 19. The phase in which a cell grows and carries out its normal activities is .......... 20. A..........cell contains only one copy of each chromosome. 21. The another name for both a female and male sex cell is .......... 22. The phase of the cell cycle in which the DNA is duplicated. 23. Gonads are male and female organs that make.......... . 24. A fertilized cell is called a .......... 25. In the human body, a cell that is not a gamete is a .......... 26. The haploid gamete produced by males is called .......... 27. In mitosis, chromatids lined up in the middle of the cell during .......... . 28. In mitosis, separate nuclear form around the two sets of chromosomes during .......... 29. During mitosis, spindle fibers appeared during .......... .
 * 1) Mitosis and Meiosis- extra credit (Success Points)


 * 1) 73 __**Meiosis**__: How Sex Cells Are Made:

Gametes, or sex cells, do not perform mitosis. Gametes are cells involved in sexual reproduction. The female gamete is called an egg. The male gamete is called sperm. Most cells in an organism are somatic cells, not sex cells. A human somatic cell has 46 chromosomes in its nucleus. Because there are 23 human chromosomes, each somatic cell is a diploid cell. A diploid cell has two copies of each chromosome, called homologous chromosomes. One copy of each chromosome comes from the father. The other copy comes from the mother.

Gametes are haploid cells. They have one set of chromosomes. Both sperm and eggs cells have 23 chromosomes inside their nuclei. Humans create more humans by joining one egg cell with one sperm cell. Fertilization is the process of combining an egg cell and a sperm cell. After fertilization, a new diploid cell is formed, called a zygote. A zygote goes through many rounds of mitosis, eventually creating a new organism.

Gametes are produced by a process called called meiosis. Meiosis is similar to mitosis. However, there are some key differences in the formation of haploid cells. In contrast to mitosis, meiosis involves two divisions, meiosis I and meiosis II. In meiosis I, homologous chromosomes are separated from each other. In meiosis II, sister chromatids are separated. The resulting cells are haploid.

Meiosis I Meiosis I begins with prophase I. In this phase, the sister chromatids for each chromosome become X-shaped. Spindle fibers appear and attach to the centromeres. A special feature of prophase I is synapsis. In synapsis, homologous chromosomes pair together and form a tetrad. One copy of each chromosome pairs up with the other copy. Each copy has the same genes in the same location. A gene is the instructions for a trait like blue or brown eyes. While the chromosomes are paired, they trade DNA pieces with each other. This trade is called crossing over. Crossing over makes every organism unique. This process causes sex cells to have a mix of gene creating more variation.

In metaphase I, the tetrads line up. They line up in the middle of the cell along the metaphase plate. In anaphase I, homologous chromosomes separate. They move toward opposite ends of the cell. Each end now has a haploid daughter nucleus. The nucleus has only one set of chromosomes. Each chromosome is made up of two sister chromatids. In telophase I and cytokinesis, new nuclei form and the cytoplasm divides in half. Two haploid daughter cells are formed. These haploid cells contain only one copy of each chromosome consisting of two chromatid copies. These chromatid copies will separate during meiosis II.

Meiosis II Meiosis II is similar to meiosis I. However, DNA is not copied before meiosis II. Meiosis II starts with prophase II. In this stage, the nuclei and the sister chromatids stay tightly packed. Spindle fibers attach to each pair of sister chromatids. The spindle fibers move the sister chromatids to the center of the cells.

In metaphase II, the sister chromatids reach the midline of the cell. In anaphase II, the sister chromatids separate at their centromeres. The separated chromatids become individual chromosomes. They move to opposite ends of the cells. In telophase II, four nuclei are created. Cytokinesis divides the two cells into four haploid daughter cells. Each gamete cell has 23 chromosomes. When the gametes fertilize, the resulting zygote has a diploid set of 46 chromosomes.

Like mitosis, meiosis is a cycle of division and reproduction that supports life. Mitosis and meiosis are alike, but different. In mitosis, one cell undergoes one division, creating two somatic cells. In meiosis, one cell undergoes two divisions to create four gamete cells.

1. ............ are cells involved in reproduction. 2. Human somatic cells have .......... in its nucleus. 3. If a cell has two copies of each chromosome, it is called ............ . 4. The two copies of a particular chromosome are called ........... and one comes from each parent. 5. .......... are haploid cells. 6. Haploid cells have only one of each .......... . 7. Eggs and sperm in humans have only ......... chromosomes. 8. Human .......... cells have 46 chromosomes, while human .......... cells have only 23. 9. .......... is the process of combining an egg and sperm cell. 10. A .......... is a new diploid cell formed by fertilization. 11. .......... is the process that produces gametes. 12. The two divisions of meiosis are called ......... and ......... . 13. In meiosis I, .......... are separated from each other. 14. In meiosis II, .......... separated at their centromeres. 15. Synapsis occurs in ............ of meiosis I. 16. ............ is when homologous chromosomes pair up. 17. Paired-up homologous chromosomes are called ....... . 18. ............ is when homologous chromosomes trade pieces of DNA. 19. ............ causes sex cells to have a unique mix of the genes from the homologous chromosomes. 20. In anaphase I, the tetrads separate and ........... move towards opposite ends of the cell. 21. The result of meiosis I is two .......... cells contain one copy of each ......... consisting of two .......... copies. 22. In .......... chromosomes line up across the middle of the cell. 23. In telophase II, four ......... have been created from the original cell before meiosis I. 24. .......... have 23 chromosomes and combine through ........ to make a .......... with 46 chromosomes. 25. Mitosis creates new .......... and meiosis creates new .......... .

Go to the link and answer the numbered questions on the presentation. @http://docs.google.com/present/view?id=dhcd2zxp_3f5xdgdr6&interval=15
 * 1) 71 Mitosis Picture Lab

Copy the green headings as they change and items written in white. []
 * 1) 69 Mitosis and Meiosis

12/3 Copy the notes and answer the questions. 1. During mitosis, a cell's DNA coils into very compact structures called chromosomes. 2. Each chromosome is a single molecule of DNA. 3. The DNA in eukaryotic cells is wrapped around proteins called histones. 4. Non-histone proteins unwind specific regions of DNA when its code is used. 5. Chromosomes have two identical halves called chromatids. 6. The chromosome halves or chromatids are connected at a place called a centromere. 7. X-shaped chromosomes consist of two chromatids connected at a centromere. 8. During Interphase, a cell's DNA is less tightly coiled and is called chromatin. 9. Prokaryotic cells only have one looped piece of DNA, which is attached to the cell membrane. 10. What are the rod shaped structures made of DNA and proteins in eukaryotic cells called? 11. What is the DNA wrapped around in eukaryotic cells? 12. What what uncoils specific regions of DNA to control its activity? What are the two identical house of a chromosome called 13. What are the two identical halves of a chromosome called? 14. What is the place where two chromatids are connected called? 15. What is the less tightly coiled form of DNA that occurs during interphase called? 16. What kind of cell often has a circular DNA molecule? 17. Each species has a certain number of chromosomes. 18. Chromosomes occur in pairs because each parent provides one of each kind. 19. Humans normally have 46 chromosomes consisting of 23 pairs. 20. Chromosomes are categorized as either sex chromosomes or autosomes. 21. The sex chromosomes carry the genes that determine the organism's gender. 22. Sex chromosomes also carry genes or characteristics other than gender. 23. Normally, human females have two similar X-sex chromosomes, while males have an X and a Y. 24. Autosomes look alike and humans normally have 22 pair of them. 25. Organisms receive one copy of each chromosome from each of their parents. 26. The similar copies of each chromosome are called homologous. 27. Homologous chromosomes contain the same genes, but can have different expressions of these genes. 28. Cells having two sets of chromosomes are called diploid. 29. Diploid cells have homologous pairs of autosomes. 30. Sperm and egg cells are haploid cells, which contain only one set of chromosomes. 31. Two haploid cells join to make a diploid cell in fertilization. 32. Each parent provides a copy of a particular chromosome, what are these similar chromosomes call? 33. What are cells called that have two sets of chromosomes? 34. What are cells called that have one set of chromosomes? 35. What term describes the number of chromosomes in sperm in and egg cells? 36. What term describes the number of chromosomes in a cell that forms by the joining of a sperm and egg cell?
 * 1) 67 Chromosome Structure

http://sciactivitiespage.wikispaces.com/Fermentation+rw Two Types of Fermentation The two main types of fermentation are based on the products they form. The first type is lactic acid fermentation. This process. Recall that fermentation is an anaerobic process to make ATP. Lactic acid is an organic waste produced by anaerobic fermentation. Instead of forming pyruvic acid, these reactions use NADH from glycolysis to form lactic acid. People use anaerobic species to produce certain kinds of food, like cheese and yogurt. Their slightly sour flavor is a result of lactic acid. People are exposed to lactic acid in another way. Human muscle cells use a lot of ATP and oxygen to function. During major physical activity like exercising, muscle cells need more oxygen. If muscle cells do not get enough oxygen, they use lactic acid fermentation to produce ATP. As muscle cells use these anaerobic reactions, lactic acid builds up in the cells as waste. This buildup causes sore muscles. Some anaerobic species use another type of fermentation called ethyl alcohol fermentation. Ethyl alcohol is a colorless liquid waste product produced by anaerobic fermentation. It is also the main chemical in alcoholic beverages. Ethyl alcohol fermentation breaks down glucose into two products, carbon dioxide and ethyl alcohol. People rely on ethyl alcohol fermentation when they use yeast to make bread. Yeasts are aerobic bacteria that perform ethyl alcohol fermentation and glycolysis. When yeasts are put into dough, they separate from oxygen. Yeasts break down the sugars in the dough mixture to get fuel. As they ferment the sugars, they produce carbon dioxide. Bubbles of C02 gas are trapped in the dough and cause it to rise. Bakers allow this process to happen so the dough will rise and the taste is right. The white, soft part of bread has many tiny air bubbles trapped inside the crust. The spaces are where C02 bubbles were trapped during baking. The process of fermentation is show in the diagram. Fermentation starts with glucose being turned into pyruvate by glycolysis. Glycolysis produces 2 ATP, but it also must turn two NAD+ into NADH. Fermentation turns pyruvate into ethanol releasing carbon dioxide and turns NADH back into NAD+. This keeps NAD+ available so glycolysis can continue. Glycolysis would stop with out the recycling of NAD+. In fermentation, the carbon dioxide and ethanol are waste products produced by yeast making ATP from sugars.
 * 1) 65 Fermentation Questions

1. The two main types of fermentation are ... 2. Fermentation is an anaerobic process for ... 3. .............. give cheese is slightly sour flavor. 4. When muscle cells lack oxygen, they use ............... to produce ATP. 5. Alcohol fermentation breaks down glucose into the two waste products ......... and .......... . 6. Yeast are aerobic bacteria that ... 7. As yeast ferment sugars, they produce ... 8. Dough rises because CO2 ............ are trapped in it. 9. The many tiny spaces in bread are caused by ... 10. Fermentation starts with the substance ................ . 11. Fermentation produces 2 ATP using the process of ............... . 12. Glycolysis produces 2 ATP molecules and two .............. molecules. 13. Fermentation turns NADH back into .............. . 14. Glycolysis requires ............... to breakdown glucose and will stop with out it. 15. The waste products of fermentation are ...

1. The two main types of fermentation are ... 2. Fermentation is an anaerobic process for ... 3. .............. give cheese is slightly sour flavor. 4. When muscle cells lack oxygen, they use ............... to produce ATP. 5. Alcohol fermentation breaks down glucose into the two waste products ......... and .......... . 6. Yeast are aerobic bacteria that ... 7. As yeast ferment sugars, they produce ... 8. Dough rises because CO2 ............ are trapped in it. 9. The many tiny spaces in bread are caused by ... 10. Fermentation starts with the substance ................ . 11. Fermentation produces 2 ATP using the process of ............... . 12. Glycolysis produces 2 ATP molecules and two .............. molecules. 13. Fermentation turns NADH back into .............. . 14. Glycolysis requires ............... to breakdown glucose and will stop with out it. 15. The waste products of fermentation are ...

1. The two main types of fermentation are ... 2. Fermentation is an anaerobic process for ... 3. .............. give cheese is slightly sour flavor. 4. When muscle cells lack oxygen, they use ............... to produce ATP. 5. Alcohol fermentation breaks down glucose into the two waste products ......... and .......... . 6. Yeast are aerobic bacteria that ... 7. As yeast ferment sugars, they produce ... 8. Dough rises because CO2 ............ are trapped in it. 9. The many tiny spaces in bread are caused by ... 10. Fermentation starts with the substance ................ . 11. Fermentation produces 2 ATP using the process of ............... . 12. Glycolysis produces 2 ATP molecules and two .............. molecules. 13. Fermentation turns NADH back into .............. . 14. Glycolysis requires ............... to breakdown glucose and will stop with out it. 15. The waste products of fermentation are ...

11/30 http://sciactivitiespage.wikispaces.com/Karyotyping+Socks+Activity Read the activity at the above link. Print the socks from the above link. Cut out the pictures of the 46 socks. 1. Pair up the socks by matching stripes. 2. Save the unmatched pair of socks. 3. Glue the matched pairs from longest to shorest. 4. Glue the unmatched pair at the end. See page 100 in your textbook. Copy and fill in the blanks of the numbered sentences. __Karyotyping Socks__: In the karyotyping activity sock were used to model chromosomes. Socks come in pairs because one is for each foot. Sexually produced organisms have two parents, so they get one chromosome of each kind from each parent. 1. Chromosomes come in pairs because .... Humans have the same number of chromosomes as the number of socks used in this activity. 2. The number of chromosomes in most human cells is .... Diploid cells have pairs of chromosomes like the pairs of socks in this activity. 3. Most human cells have ........... pairs of chromosomes. An organisms chromosome pairs are called by a number based on length and banding. This is similar to how the socks were sorted by length and stripes. Chromosome pairs that match are called autosomes. 4. Humans have .......... pairs of autosomes. The two copies of each autosome are called homologous chromosomes. In the activity socks a matching pair of socks represented homologous chromosomes. 5. ............ chromosomes have the same features and genes for the same traits. In the sock activity there was one pair of mismatched socks. The one chromosome pair that is mismatched for human males are called sex chromosomes. The sex chromosomes of human females are not mismatched, but are still called sex chromosomes. 6. Human males have sex chromosomes that are........ 7. Human females have sex chromosomes that ......... 8. An X and a Y are the sex chromosomes in human ............. 9. Human .......... have two X sex chromosomes. The socks in this activity represented the chromosomes in a cell. There were pairs of socks, so the cell modeled in this activity was diploid. Most cells in the body are diploid and have two sets of chromosomes. 10. In ............. cells the chromosomes are paired, so there are two sets of chromosomes. Some cells have only one set of chromosomes. Modeling this with sock, the cell would have only half of each pair of socks. Egg and sperm cells have only one set of chromosomes and are called haploid. 11. ............ cells have only one set of chromosomes and are sex cells like eggs and sperm. Eggs and sperm with a haploid number of chromosomes come together to make a diploid cell. This would be like the sock from two cells coming together to make a cell with pairs of socks. 12. Haploid cells with ....... set of chromosomes come together to make diploid cells with ....... sets of chromosomes.
 * 1) 63 Karyotyping Socks Activity

Example of completed student work:

11/20 Bubbling Yeast Data and Graph. (Extra Credit) http://sciactivitiespage.wikispaces.com/Bubbling+Yeast+Activity

11/19 http://sciactivitiespage.wikispaces.com/Fermentation+rw Write out the questions and fill in the blanks. This worksheet explains tomorrows activity.
 * 1) 63 Fermentation Quesitons 1-15

11/18 Draw the items A through C which are found on the indicated pages. Write the facts listed under each drawn item.
 * 1) 61 Chromatin/DNA

A. DNA and the Cell Cycle (page 97) -During interphase, a cell's nucleus looks normal and the chromatin/DNA is spread out. -During interphase, some the chromatin/DNA is being used and all of it is copied. -Cell division is occurring during the yellow and green parts of the cell cycle. -During cell division, the DNA is packaged around proteins into structures called chromosomes.

B. Normal Nucleus (page 39) -This cell is in interphase. The chromatin/DNA is spread out, but is still organized and regulated by proteins.

C. Chromosome Parts (page 98) -Each piece of chromatin/DNA forms a “X” shaped structure called a chromosome during cell division. -Chromosomes have two halves connected at a narrow area called the centromere. -Each of these halves is an identical copy and are called sister chromatids.

D. Detailed Structure of a Chromosome (page 110)

(When finished: start workbook page 46 and hold onto it.)



11/17 Cell Cycle and Mitosis
 * 1) 59 Cell Cycle Questions

Cells are the basic unit of life. As a cell lives, it goes through common stages of activity. These stages combine into the cell cycle, or life cycle, of a cell. The cell cycle begins when a new cell is created. It ends when it divides to make new cells. When a cell divides, it performs reproduction. Reproduction is the process of living things making more living things. Both the nucleus and cytoplasm divide in eukaryotic cell division.

Interphase When a eukaryotic cell is created, it begins its life in interphase. Interphase is the longest phase of the life cycle of a cell. Interphase is divided into three stages based on how the cell grows. The first stage is called G1. G stands for "growth." During the G1 stage, a cell performs its typical activities, such as cellular respiration. The cell also grows to a mature size.

The second stage of interphase is the S stage. S stands for synthesis. A cell in S stage makes a copy of its entire DNA. The copies of each chromosome stay together as sister chromatids. Sister chromatids are joined tightly at the centromere.

The third stage of interphase is the G2 stage. In this stage, a cell makes copies of its organelles and doubles in size. These activities prepare the cell for the next part of the cell cycle stage, mitosis, or the M phase. The M stands for mitosis, which is the process of cellular reproduction. During mitosis, a cell undergoes division to make two identical daughter cells.

Mitosis Mitosis is the process of creating two identical nuclei. Mitosis has four phases. Figure 9.1.1 shows the four phases of mitosis. Prophase is the first phase. In prophase, a cell's nuclear envelope breaks down. The cell forms a network of fibers called the spindle. Spindle fibers move chromosomes around during reproduction. Some spindle fibers attach to each set of sister chromatids near their centromere.

Metaphase is the second phase of mitosis. In metaphase, the spindle fibers line up the sister chromatids in the center of the cell. This area is called the metaphase plate.

The third phase in mitosis is anaphase. In anaphase, the sister chromatids separate at their centromeres. They become individual chromosomes. The spindle fibers move the separated chromosomes to opposite sides of the cell.

Telophase is the fourth phase. In telophase, two nuclear envelopes form around each set of chromosomes. The spindle fibers break down. Cytokinesis also occurs along with telophase. Cytokinesis is the process of dividing the cytoplasm of a cell into two daughter cells. As the two nuclei form, a ring of fibers forms around the outside of the cell. The fibers begin pinching in the cell membrane to form a cleavage furrow. The fibers shorten until they pinch the cell in two.

Mitosis results in two identical daughter cells from one parent cell. DNA in the daughter cells is an exact copy of the parent DNA.

Cell Cycle Questions 1. ............... is the longest phase where the cell's typical actives are done. 2. Cells ............... their life in interphase. 3. Starting interphase, the cell grows to a ... 4. In interphase, the cell first copies its ... 5. Finishing interphase, the cell make copies of its ... Mitosis starts when chromosomes become visible. 6. The process of mitosis makes ... 7. In prophase, a cell's nuclear membrane ............... . 8. In prophase, a network of ............... forms. 9. In metaphase, the spindle fibers lineup the ............... . 10. In anaphase, sister chromatids ... 11. In telophase, two .............. form around each set of chromosomes. 12. ............... is the telophase process of dividing the cytoplasm. 13. Mitosis results in two identical ............... from one parent cell. 14. A pair of identical chromosomes attached are called ... 15. A ................ is the area where sister chromatids are connected. 16. The ............... is a network of fibers that move chromosomes during mitosis. 17. Quickly draw each phase of mitosis

11/16 A. INTERPHASE, Draw figure 2 on page 97. Write the following under it. 1. The longest phase of the cell cycle is interphase. 2. In cells that are going to divide, the DNA is copiedd during interphase. 3. After interphase, the nucleus divides. (Mitosis) 4. In the final step the cytoplasm divides. (Cytokinesis) B. REPLICATION, Draw figure 3 on page 98. Write everything.
 * 1) 57 Cell Cycle Figures

C. MITOSIS, Draw figure 5 on page 99. Write everythings.

11/13
 * 1) 54 Workbook Pages 41 and42

11/12 A. Cell division—increases the number of cells and causes many-celled ............... to grow B. The Cell Cycle—series of events that takes place from one ............... to the next 1. Cells have periods of formation, growth and development, and death called ............... . 2. Interphase—most of the life of any eukaryotic cell, or cell with a nucleus, is spent in a period of ............... and ............... . a. During interphase, a cell duplicates its ............... and prepares for cell division. b. After interphase, the nucleus divides, and then the ............... separates to form two new cells. C. Mitosis—process in which the nucleus divides to form two identical ............... . 1. Chromosome—structure in the nucleus that contains ............... material 2. Prophase a. Nucleolus and ............... disintegrate. b. ............... move to opposite ends of the cell. c. ............... begin to stretch across the............... cell. 3. Metaphase—pairs of ............... line up across the center of the cell. 4. Anaphase a. Each ............... divides. b. Each pair of chromatids ............... and moves to opposite ends of the cell. 5. ...............—spindle fibers disappear and a new nucleus forms. D. Division of the Cytoplasm—for most cells, the ............... separates after the nucleus divides. 1. In ............... cells, the cell membrane pinches in the middle and the cytoplasm divides. 2. In ............... cells, a cell plate forms. E. Results of mitosis 1. Each cell in your body, except sex cells, has a nucleus with ............... chromosomes. 2. Allows growth and ............... worn out or damaged cells.
 * 1) 53 Cellular Reproduction Outlining - Copy and fill in the blanks. (textbook page 96)

11/10 Write the quesitons and answers for 1 - 16. Remember to write the word answers rather than letters for the multiple choice.
 * 1) 51 3rd Chapter Review Page 90

11/9 http://sciactivitiespage.wikispaces.com/Cellular+Energy+-+ATP+rw
 * 1) 49 Cellular Energy - ATP

11/6 http://sciactivitiespage.wikispaces.com/Energy+for+Life
 * 1) 47 Energy for Life

11/5
 * 1) 45 Workbook pages 35 and 36

11/4
 * 1) 43 Workbook pages 33 and 34

11/3 **1. Metabolism** —the total of all ............... in an organism. **2.** The chemical reactions of metabolism require ............... . **B. Photosynthesis** —the process that plants and other organisms use to convert ............... into chemical energy or sugars to be used as food. **1.** **...............**—organisms that make their own food; ...............—organisms that can’t make their own food **2.** Chlorophyll and other pigments are used in hotosynthesis to capture ............... which is used to produce sugar and ............... .  **C. Respiration** —the process in which chemical reactions break down food molecules into simpler substances and ............... .   **1.** Respiration of carbohydrates begins in the ............... . **a.** Carbohydrates are broken down into ............... . **b.** Each glucose molecule is broken down into two simpler molecules, releasing energy. **2.** Respiration moves into the ............... . **a.** The two simpler molecules are ............... again, releasing much more energy. **b.** This process uses ............... and produces CO2 and water as wastes. **D.** **Fermentation**—cells that do not have enough oxygen for respiration use this process to release some of the stored energy in ............... molecules. **1.** Entire process occurs in the ............... . **2.** Produces ..............., ............... , and carbon dioxide as wastes. **E.** **Photosynthesis** and ............... have opposite outcomes. **1.** Photosynthesis produces ............... and ..............., which are used in respiration **2.** Respiration produces ............... and ............... , which are used in photosynthesis. **3.** ............... occurs in chloroplasts, while respiration occurs in the cytoplasm and mitochondria.
 * 1) 41 Energy for Life Outline - copy the following and fill in the blanks. (Text page 81)
 * 3-3 Energy for Life** **A.** Cells use chemical reactions to change the chemical ............... stored in food into forms needed to perform activities.

11/2
 * 1) 39 Visulizing Transport Page 79

10/30
 * 1) 37 Passive Transport



10/29 Figure #6 on page 74, Draw whats in the circle and write all the associated writing. Figure #7 on page 75, Draw whats in the two circle and write all the associated writing. Figure #8 on page 76, Draw whats in the two circle and write all the associated writing. Figure #9 on page 77, Draw whats in the circle and write all the associated writing.
 * 1) 35 Moving Materials Figures





10/26 and 10/27 Draw double circle diagrams comparing the terms. xx
 * 1) 34 Chemistry of Life Terms